EQOL Journal (2018) 10(1):
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Nutritional and motor ability status of first- and second- grade students
Živan Milošević 1✉• Dejan Čokorilo 1 • Nikola Pajić 1 • Višnja Đorđić 1
Received: 3rd November, 2017 |
DOI: 10.31382/eqol.180604 |
Accepted: 11th January, 2018 |
|
© The Author(s) 2018. This article is published with open access. |
|
Abstract
Nutritional status is a relevant indicator of optimal growth and development, as well as the health status of children. Since nutritional status can influence the expression of children’s motor capacities, a study has been carried out in order to examine differences in motor abilities of children in relation to their nutritional status. The sample included 300 first- and
Keywords body mass index • motor ability status • nutritional status • overweight • obesity
✉zivanmilosevic991@gmail.com
1Faculty of Sport and Physical Education, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia
Introduction
Obesity has reached exceptionally high levels globally. Nearly two billion adults are overweight adults, with 650 million of them being clinically obese. According to recent data around 41 million children under the age of 5 are overweight or obese (WHO, 2016). Newer studies corroborate the fact that the number of obese children continues to grow (Biehl et al., 2013).
Study carried out by the Public Health Institute of Republic of Serbia (Results of the National Health Survey of Serbia: 2013 year, 2014) showed that there has been an increase in the prevalence of obese children (4.9%) in the year 2013, in comparison to the year of 2006 (2.6%).
Overweight children and adolescents are more susceptible for developing both
&Riddoch, 2000; Thomas, Baker, & Davies, 2003).
35
EQOL Journal (2018) 10(1):
Study that has examined the relationship between physical activity levels and the body mass index of children aged
Biological development of a child manifests itself through a set of sequential and predictive changes in the physical domain, as well as in the sphere of motor ability development. Nutritional status represents one of the strongest predictors of the child’s overall health and
Research by Trost, Kerr, Ward and Pate (2001) which examined physical activity levels of obese and
Table 1. Basic sample characteristics (N = 300)
activity level is positively correlated with motor dexterity in children, while reduced physical activity level is negatively correlated with motor dexterity (Wrotniak, Epstein, Dorn, Jones, & Kondilis, 2006).
Obese children are socially marginalized, have a decreased level of
Previous research indicates that nutritional status is very important prerequisite for healthy development, including motor development, during childhood. Since there is an obvious lack of research analyzing the relationship between nutritive and motor status of children in Serbia, a study has been carried out with the main goal to examine the differences in motor abilities of students in relation to their nutritional status.
Method
A
Participants. Three hundred (N=300) 1st and 2nd graders
|
Boys |
Girls |
Total |
|
|
(n = 132) |
(n = 168) |
(n = 300) |
|
Underweight |
17 |
25 |
42 |
|
(12.88%) |
(14.88%) |
(14.00%) |
||
|
||||
Normal weight |
83 |
107 |
190 |
|
(62.88%) |
(63.69%) |
(63.33%) |
||
|
||||
Overweight |
20 |
24 |
44 |
|
(15.15%) |
(14.29%) |
(14.67%) |
||
|
||||
Obese |
12 |
12 |
24 |
|
(9.09%) |
(7.14%) |
(8.00%) |
||
|
36
EQOL Journal (2018) 10(1):
Measures. A reduced “EUROFIT” test battery was used to evaluate motor ability status. The battery combines validated health and
Standing Long Jump. This test evaluates leg explosive strength. The participant jumps by using
Plate Tapping. This test evaluates the speed of alternating movement of the dominant hand. Equipment required includes the following: a desk with two discs (20 cm diameter), placed so that distance between their centers is 60 cm; a rectangle (10 x 20 cm) placed on an equal distance between two discs; and a stopwatch. The aim of this test is to perform 25
Equipment needed:
Anthropometric characteristics included body height and body weight.
Body height was measured to the nearest 0.1 cm with the portable “Seca 213” stadiometer. During the measuring procedure, the participant stands barefooted. Body weight was measured to the nearest
0.1kg by digital scale “OMRON BF511”. The scale was positioned on a flat, hard and solid surface. The participants were measured wearing minimal amount of clothing.
Body mass index (BMI) was used to assess nutritive status of the participants. BMI was calculated from weight (in kilograms) divided by the height squared (in square meters). For nutritive status classification, International Obesity Task Force (IOTF) cutoff points were applied (Cole & Lobstein, 2012).
Procedure. The participants performed motor tests dressed in sports attire. The tests were performed in school gyms using station format. Trained and experienced examiners (PE teachers) conducted the testing. The participants were well informed about the purpose and the technique of tests. All parents signed the informed consent for their child’s participation in the study, and they were told that the children can withdraw from the test at any moment if they are feeling uncomfortable for some reason.
Data analysis. Normality of distribution has been tested with the
Results
Descriptive statistics of used variables, as well as results of testing gender differences is shown in Table
2.Testing the normality of the distribution with the
37
EQOL Journal (2018) 10(1):
Plate Tapping and
Table 2. Descriptive statistics and gender differences in motor tests
significant gender differences in
|
Boys |
|
Girls |
|
Variable |
(n = 132) |
|
(n = 168) |
|
|
M ± SD |
M ± SD |
||
Plate Tapping (s) |
19.34±3.42 |
0.20 |
19.35±4.89 |
0.000 |
Standing Long Jump (cm) |
114.31±21.96 |
0.20 |
110.45±22.38 |
0.200 |
15.30±5.65 |
0.20 |
14.58±4.48 |
0.094 |
|
26.02±3.22 |
0.20 |
26.91±3.36 |
0.037 |
|
16.17±5.92 |
0.00 |
19.02±6.45 |
0.000 |
|
Legend: a – significant difference between boys and girls (p = 0.01), detected by |
|
|||
|
|
|
|
Results of testing the differences in motor abilities |
be seen, no significant differences were detected in |
||||
between boys of different nutritional status, by |
any of the observed variables across all groups. |
||||
|
|
|
|||
Table 3. Differences in motor ability tests between boys of different nutritional status |
|
|
|||
|
|
|
|
|
|
Variable |
Underweight |
Normal weight |
Overweight |
Obese |
|
AS±SD |
AS±SD |
AS±SD |
AS±SD |
||
|
|||||
|
|
|
|
|
|
Plate Tapping (s) |
19.16±3.00 |
19.24±2.97 |
20.30±5.04 |
18.70±3.74 |
|
Standing Long Jump (cm) |
120.06±18.49 |
115.43±22.95 |
110.30±20.54 |
105.08±20.14 |
|
15.71±4.63 |
16.13±5.72 |
13.75±5.86 |
11.58±4.48 |
||
25.43±3.00 |
26.20±3.51 |
24.99±1.89 |
27.33±2.70 |
||
16.71±4.37 |
16.71±5.99 |
14.45±6.33 |
14.50±6.52 |
Differences in motor ability tests between underweight, normal weight, overweight and obese girls are presented in Table 4. Results of the Kruskal- Wallis test indicate that there are statistically significant differences in Standing Long Jump and
Table 4. Differences in motor ability tests between girls of different nutritional status
Variable |
Underweight |
Normal weight |
Overweight |
Obese |
|
AS±SD |
AS±SD |
AS±SD |
AS±SD |
||
|
|||||
Plate Tapping (s) |
21.86±7.84 |
18.57±3.44 |
19.57±5.90 |
20.71±4.18 |
|
Standing Long Jump (cm) |
106.04±29.09 |
114.79±19.53a |
105.50±20.86 |
90.92±21.79 |
|
13.72±4.97 |
15.04±4.50 |
14.54±3.87 |
12.33±3.87 |
||
27.26±3.06 |
26.43±3.38a |
27.66±2.93 |
28.94±3.82 |
||
17.68±6.52 |
19.50±6.08 |
18.79±7.91 |
18.08±6.75 |
Legend: a – statistically significant difference in comparison to obese girls (p ≤ 0.01).
38
EQOL Journal (2018) 10(1):
Discussion
The study was conducted in order to examine differences in motor abilities between children of different nutritional status, since there is a lack of this kind of research in Serbia. Participants were divided in four groups according to BMI: underweight, normal weight, overweight, and obese, while. In addition, gender subsamples were formed in order to examine gender differences in motor abilities.
It turned out that girls are more flexible, while boys showed better results in running speed/agility test (Table 2). Girls of younger school age, generally have higher level of flexibility levels in comparison to boys of the same age group (Beunen, Malina, Renson, & Van Gerven, 1988). This might be explained by the fact that activities which predominantly affect the flexibility levels, such as dancing, figure skating or synchronized swimming, are traditionally seen as feminine activities, and thus more girls choose to participate in them in comparison to boys. Nevertheless, participation in programs for developing flexibility is a far stronger predictor of flexibility levels than gender (Haywood, 2014). Previous studies also shown that boys achieve better results in tests of speed, explosive strength and
As far as the relationship between motor abilities and nutritional status is concerned, statistically significant differences in explosive strength and running speed/agility have been noticed in girls (Table 4). In both cases, normal weight girls were significantly more successful than their obese counterparts. Previous studies which examined the association between nutritional status and motor abilities of obese and normal weight girls, have also identified such differences in motor tasks such as running, jumping and isometric holds (static endurance), all in favor of normal weight girls (Malina et al., 1995; Malina & Katzmarzyk, 2006). On the contrary, in the subsample of boys, no significant differences have been observed between groups in relation to nutritional status (Table 3). Altogether, the results suggest that there are no
statistically significant differences in most of the examined motor tests in relation to children’s nutritional status. These results are in concordance with previous research which pointed out that body mass index isn’t a good predictor of motor ability in children (Fjørtoft, 2000; Milanese, Bortolami, Bertucco, Verlato, & Zancanaro, 2010).
Even though no other significant differences have been detected, it can still be said that obese participants, regardless of gender, in almost all of the examined variables achieved the weakest results, which indicates a tendency of lower motor functioning within obese children population. These findings are in agreement with most of the previous research which examined relationships between nutritional and motor status of elementary school students (Lopes, Stodden, Bianchi, Maia, & Rodrigues, 2012; Lubans, Morgan, Cliff, Barnett, & Okely, 2010; Wrotniak et al., 2006). Yet, in children from South Africa, aged 7 – 14, an increase in body mass index has a positive correlation with the standing long jump (Monyeki, Koppes, Kemper, & Monyeki, 2005), probably due to the fact that among the underweight population body mass index can be interpreted as an indicator of muscle mass. Bearing in mind previous research, it can be said that individual variability within the normal range of BMI does not significantly affect the results of children in motor ability tests, while it does have a significant effect in extreme populations such as underweight and extremely obese individuals (Milanese et al., 2010).
Worse results of overweight and obese students in all motor ability tests can be explained by the fact that greater body mass acts as an inertial load which should be transferred during the execution of motor tasks (Astrand, Rodahl, & Stromme, 2003). Excessive body weight negatively correlates with performance in motor tasks such as running, jumping and torso flexion, in which the body weight is working against gravity. Some other factors that contribute to lower results in motor abilities of obese children should also be taken into consideration. Lack of motivation and reduced participation in physical activity programs are frequently present in obese children. Lack of motivation for physical activity participation among obese children is partially attributed to “learned and acquired helplessness”, where any level of physical activity is perceived as a hard work. Therefore, the main focus of interventions aiming to obese children should be acquiring and improving basic motor skills with constant verbal encouragement, more so than on highlighting the
39
EQOL Journal (2018) 10(1):
importance of sport competition (McWhorter, Wallmann, & Alpert, 2003).
Besides nutritional status, some other factors, out of the scope of this study (e.g. heredity, general health, SES), may influence motor functioning of children, and should be taken into consideration when analyzing the results. In addition, limitations of the study design, as well as of instruments used for nutritive and motor status assessment, could have affected the results, and this should be carefully considered in future research.
Bearing in mind that motor efficacy of children enables efficient participation in physical and everyday activity, and that increased body mass index might negatively influence their motor functioning, maintenance of optimal body structure in extremely sensitive period of childhood must be prioritized in both education and health sectors.
References
Armstrong, M. E. G., Lambert, M. I., & Lambert, E. V. (2017). Relationships between different nutritional anthropometric statuses and
Astrand, P., Rodahl, K., Dahl, H. A., & Stromme, S. (2003). Textbook of Work
Beunen, G., Malina, R.M., Renson, R., & Van Gerven, D. (1988). Adolescent Growth and Motor Performance. A Longitudinal Analysis of Belgian Boys. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Biehl, A., Hovengen, R., Grøholt, E. K., Hjelmesæth, J., Strand, B. H., & Meyer, H. E. (2013). Adiposity among children in Norway by urbanity and maternal education: a nationally representative study. BMC Public Health, 13(1), 842.
Brunet, M., Chaput, J. P., & Tremblay, A. (2007). The association between low physical fitness and high body mass index or waist circumference is increasing with age in children: the 'Quebec en Forme' Project. International Journal of Obesity, 31(4), 637.
Ceschia, A., Giacomini, S., Santarossa, S., Rugo, M., Salvadego, D., Da Ponte, A., ... & Lazzer, S. (2016). Deleterious effects of obesity on physical fitness in pre- pubertal children. European Journal of Sport Science, 16(2),
Cole, T. J., & Lobstein, T. (2012). Extended international (IOTF) body mass index cut‐offs for thinness, overweight and obesity. Pediatric Obesity, 7(4), 284- 294.
40
Committee of Experts on Sports Research. (1988). EUROFIT: European Test of Physical Fitness. Strasbourg, France: Council of Europe.
Fjørtoft, I. (2000). Motor fitness in
Gulías‐González, R., Sánchez‐López, M., Olivas‐Bravo, Á., Solera‐Martínez, M., & Martínez‐Vizcaíno, V. (2014). Physical fitness in Spanish schoolchildren aged
Häcker, A. L., Bigras, J. L., Henderson, M., Barnett, T. A.,
&Mathieu, M. E. (2017). Motor skills of obese and severely obese children and
Advance |
online |
publication. |
doi: |
10.1519/JSC.0000000000002213 |
|
Harro, M. & Riddoch, C. (2000). Physical activity. In: N. Armstrong & W. van Mechelen (Eds.), Paediatric Exercise Science and Medicine (pp.
Janssen, I., Craig, W. M., Boyce, W. F., & Pickett, W. (2004). Associations between overweight and obesity with bullying behaviors in
Johnson, F., & Wardle, J. (2005). Dietary restraint, body
dissatisfaction, |
and psychological |
distress: a |
|
prospective |
analysis. Journal |
of |
Abnormal |
Psychology, 114(1), |
|
|
Karppanen, A. K., Ahonen, S. M., Tammelin, T., Vanhala, M., & Korpelainen, R. (2012). Physical activity and fitness in
Krebbs, N. F., & Jacobson, M. S. (2003). Prevention of pediatric overweight and obesity. Pediatrics, 112(2),
Lawler, M., & Nixon, E. (2011). Body dissatisfaction among adolescent boys and girls: the effects of body mass, peer appearance culture and internalization of appearance ideals. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 40(1),
Lobstein, T., Baur, L., & Uauy, R. (2004). Obesity in children and young people: a crisis in public health. Obesity Reviews, 5(1),
Lopes, V. P., Stodden, D. F., Bianchi, M. M., Maia, J. A.,
&Rodrigues, L. P. (2012). Correlation between BMI and motor coordination in children. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 15(1),
Lubans, D. R., Morgan, P. J., Cliff, D. P., Barnett, L. M.,
&Okely, A. D. (2010). Fundamental movement skills in children and adolescents. Sports Medicine, 40(12),
Malina, R. M., & Bouchard, C. (1991). Timing and sequence of changes in growth, maturation, and performance during adolescence. Growth, maturation, and physical activity, 1,
EQOL Journal (2018) 10(1):
Malina, R. M., Beunen, G. P., Claessens, A. L., Lefevre, J., Eynde, B. V., Renson, R., Vanreusel B., & Simons, J. (1995). Fatness and physical fitness of girls 7 to 17 years. Obesity, 3(3),
Malina, R. M., & Katzmarzyk, P. T. (2006). Physical activity and fitness in an international growth standard for preadolescent and adolescent children. Food and Nutrition Bulletin, 27(1),
McWhorter, J. W., Wallmann, H. W., & Alpert, P. T. (2003). The obese child: Motivation as a tool for exercise. Journal of Pediatric Health Care, 17(1), 11- 17.
Milanese, C., Bortolami, O., Bertucco, M., Verlato, G., & Zancanaro, C. (2010). Anthropometry and motor fitness in children aged
Monyeki, M. A., Koppes, L. L. J., Kemper, H. C. G., & Monyeki, K. D. (2005). Body composition and physical fitness of undernourished South African rural primary school children. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 59(7),
Results of the National Health Survey of Serbia: 2013 year. (2014). Beograd: Ministarstvo zdravlja Republike Srbije; Institut za javno zdravlje Srbije "Dr Milan Jovanović Batut”.
Sinha, R., Fisch, G., Teague, B., Tamborlane, W. V., Banyas, B., Allen, K., . . . & Sherwin, R. S. (2002). Prevalence of impaired glucose tolerance among children and adolescents with marked obesity. New England Journal of Medicine, 346(11),
Stettler, N., & Iotova, V. (2010). Early growth patterns and
Strauss, R. S. (2000). Childhood obesity and self- esteem. Pediatrics, 105(1), e15.
Strauss, R. S., & Pollack, H. A. (2003). Social marginalization of overweight children. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 157(8),
Thomas, N. E., Baker, J. S., & Davies, B. (2003). Established and recently identified coronary heart disease risk factors in young people. Sports Medicine, 33(9),
Tokmakidis, S. P., Kasambalis, A., & Christodoulos, A. D. (2006). Fitness levels of Greek primary schoolchildren in relationship to overweight and obesity. European Journal of Pediatrics, 165(12),
Tomkinson, G. R., Carver, K. D., Atkinson, F., Daniell, N. D., Lewis, L. K., Fitzgerald, J. S. . . . Ortega, F. B. (2017). European normative values for physical fitness in children and adolescents aged
Trost, S. G., Kerr, L. M., Ward, D. S., & Pate, R. R. (2001). Physical activity and determinants of physical activity in obese and
World Health Organization (WHO). (2016). Obesity and Overweight factsheet from the WHO [Online].
Availablefrom: http://www.thehealthwell.info/node/82914 [Accessed: 14th November 2017].
Wrotniak, B. H., Epstein, L. H., Dorn, J. M., Jones, K. E.,
&Kondilis, V. A. (2006). The relationship between motor proficiency and physical activity in children. Pediatrics, 118(6),
How to cite this article:
APA:
MLA:
Chicago:
Zarić, D., Gojković, Z., Sporiš, G., & Madić, D. (2018). Health- related fitness in preschool children: Difference between organized and unorganized physical activity. Exercise and Quality of Life, 10(1),
Zarić, Dragana, et al.
Exercise and Quality of Life 10.1 (2018):
Zarić, Dragana, Zoran Gojković, Goran Sporiš, and Dejan Madić.
41